It’s a little while since I have included a technical article in the News sheet, so when I was handed some information on the use of honey in brewing I thought that it would be of general interest. The article, together with a little bit of research and adding some of my own limited experience has been the basis for these notes. During another life I was an avid beekeeper and often used honey to make a particularly savage albeit well received Metheglin.

From a technical standpoint, virtually any type of honey can be used in the brewing process. There are many different types of honey from which to choose, with colours ranging from almost water to dark amber and tastes from delectably mild to distinctively bold. Each type of honey contributes something different in terms of end product colour, aroma, rounding effect and flavour.
It is important that the attributes of the selected honey match or compliment the flavour profile of the beer or mead to be brewed.
For example, mild honeys such as clover are favoured in the use of lagers whilst stronger flavoured eucalypt honey or citrus can be used in porters, stouts, and in herb or spiced beers.
In addition to using honey to add to the flavour profile, honey can be used to thin beer or as the prime carbohydrate source in meads and their variants.

Honey comprises two principal sugars Levulose (38.19%) and Dextrose (31.28%). These two sugars alone contribute approx. 70% of the total components of honey. With water at another 17.2%, the final components are from additional sugars of sucrose 1.31% and maltose 7.31% and a small amount of acids and other minor components such as pigments and flavour and aroma components. The carbohydrates in honey are 95% fermentable, when compared with malt extract at approx 70% it becomes clear that after fermentation honey leaves little residual sweetness in the beer and the flavour and aroma profile added can be very subtle. It is also important to mention that honey is low in enzymes and other nutrients which are required by the yeast to metabolise sugars into alcohol and CO2.
For this reason it worth considering the inclusion of a mini mash into the brewing process when the prime carbohydrate source is from honey. For the same reason it is also important to add an appropriate amount of yeast nutrient to the wort prior to fermentation.  Ensuring a healthy and active yeast helps obviate fermentations which might end up stuck or with poor attenuation.

For practical purposes, honey quantities could be directly substituted with that of liquid malt extract. In terms of fermentability, honey would be slightly more efficient.
Honey can be used at a number of different points of the brewing process. Because the delicate bouquet and fine flavour of honey are particularly vulnerable to heat, it should not be included in the brew pot until the end of the boil. Adding the honey at this point and allowing it to sit for two minutes should be sufficient to sterilise the honey. In its undiluted form, honey has natural antiseptic properties and if stored correctly should not introduce any undesirables into the brew. Another point at which honey might be introduced is just after the completion of high krausen when the yeast is still highly active.
Some brewers add honey even later in the process and stop fermentation shortly after this addition to preserve the sweet flavour. This technique can provide excellent results in the brewing of some herb and spice beers in which honey helps balance bitter and sour tasting compounds.
The extent to which honey affects the flavours of beers depends upon the type of honey selected, the amount of honey added and the brewing technique used.

Sensory research conducted has shown that honey can decrease the perception of sourness and bitterness. When added to beer this means that honey tends to mask or reduce the bitterness provided by hops without masking the desirable flavour components that hops provide. Brewers report that honey gives a nice “roundness” to the beer as a desirable attribute.

 Honey that is generally available in supermarkets is “blended” honey which means that honey supplied by beekeepers is all mixed together in a big vat and bottled (there is no need to process honey). Varietal honey can also be purchased with the type stated on the jar. Just be a bit careful of using some of the eucalypt honeys as their flavour profile can be reasonably severe. They would be suitable for more highly spiced beers.
Just to whet your appetite,-
Mead is a fermented alcoholic beverage made of honey water and yeast.
Mead that also contains spices (like cloves, cinnamon, nutmeg or ginger) is called Metheglin.

Mead that contains fruit (strawberry, blackcurrant or even rosehips) is called Melomel
Mead that contains grape juice is called Pyment.

Braggot is brewed with honey and malt with or without hops. Braggot can also be fruit flavoured.

References
Honey in Beer – National Honey Board (USA).
The Hive and the Honey Bee - Roy A Grout
First Steps in Winemaking – C J J Berry
   

Introduction.

The crucial role played by water in the historical evolution of world beer styles is undisputed. Before the underlying chemistry was understood, native water supplies determined what styles could and could not be produced throughout the brewing world. Despite this, the topic remains poorly understood and largely neglected by many brewers, partly due to its overly complicated and often confusing presentation in much of the available brewing literature.
 
In reality, the subject is much simpler than it appears. There are really only four ions to be learned about, and only three salts will ever be needed. By grasping a few basic principles, brewers can develop and adjust their own water treatment plans for different beer styles and observe some improved results. Like any area of brewing, it can be learned gradually and implemented progressively as familiarity builds. This paper attempts to convey the necessary principles by extracting the relevant information from existing texts and assembling it into a (hopefully) more coherent and digestible format. 

Relevant quotations are presented from Fix: Principles of Brewing Science, 1999, and Noonan: New Brewing Lager Beer, 1996. This information is then summarized, and appropriate recommendations for treatment of Melbourne water are given. Finally, an example of a rational program for water treatment is suggested, and practical techniques for implementing the required salt additions are provided. 

1.  Melbourne Water Profile.

Firstly, it is worth having a look at Melbourne’s water supply. The following data from the South East Water 2005 Water Quality Report shows the concentrations in ppm (parts per million) of the ions of importance in brewing.

                                                                                                                        
Some of the outlying maxima are a little disconcerting, but hopefully they are rare. For practical water treatment purposes, the mean concentrations are so low as to be considered zero. It soon becomes evident that Melbourne water is calcium deficient and requires calcium addition for all brewing. The same applies to rainwater. It should be also be mentioned that all tap water should be pre-boiled or carbon filtered to remove chlorine (chlorine Cl is a gas, not to be confused with the chloride ion Cl- ).

2.   Ions of major importance in brewing.

The six ions of concern to brewers can be broken down into 3 groups:

- calcium and bicarbonate are of major importance in the entire brewing process.

- chloride and sulphate are a secondary flavour consideration only in some beer styles.

- magnesium and sodium are of lesser importance and can be largely ignored.

This section looks at the first group. A major reason that calcium and bicarbonate are so important is that they are the only two ions which significantly affect pH in brewing. 

2.1    Calcium  Ca2+

Calcium is the principal ion of hardness in water. It is the most important ion in brewing as it is the only ion which is essential in the brewing of all beer, regardless of style.

Noonan: “Calcium increases mash acidity. Calcium is advantageous to the brew. Calcium stimulates enzyme activity and improves protein digestion, stabilizes a-amylase, helps gelatinize starch and improves lauter run-off. It also extracts fine bittering principles of the hop and reduces wort colour……….improves hot-break flocculation…….essential part of yeast cell composition……neutralizes substances toxic to yeast, such as peptone and lecithin. It improves clarification during aging, as well as the stability and flavour of the finished beer.”

Fix: “Calcium ions react with malt phosphates and hence decrease pH. Calcium ions afford thermal protection for mash enzymes (Comrie, 1967). In addition, they continue to interact with malt phosphate during wort boiling, and this ongoing reaction is the primary reason that the pH decreases in the kettle boil. Calcium ions inhibit colour formation during the boil and facilitate protein coagulation…….they favourably affect yeast flocculation and beer clarification during maturation (Harrison et al., 1963; Saltukoglu and Slaughter, 1983; Taylor, 1990).  A widely accepted rule in brewing is to have calcium concentrations of at least 50ppm, and values in the range of 100-150ppm are  common. In most practical brewing situations, the available water is calcium deficient.”

Summary: Calcium is the “good guy” in brewing. It is necessary and highly beneficial not only in the mash, but also in the boil, ferment and maturation stages. Melbourne water is clearly calcium deficient, and the essential first step in treating it is the addition of calcium to at least 50ppm.

2.2    Bicarbonate  HCO3-

Bicarbonate is the principal ion of alkalinity in water. It is the ion formed when carbonate CO32- dissolves in water, eg. when adding calcium carbonate CaCO3 (chalk) to brewing liquor.

Noonan: “Bicarbonate resists increases in the mash acidity by neutralizing acids as they are formed. It also hinders gelatinization of starch by a-amylase, impedes trub flocculation during the cold break, and increases the risk of contamination in the ferment. It contributes a harsh, bitter flavour that is overwhelming in delicate lagers. Most water supplies are slightly alkaline, due to the buffering by the strongly basic reaction of even a small amount of bicarbonate. At over 50ppm Alkalinity as CaCO3, (30ppm HCO3-) water reacts sluggishly to acidulation in the mash and kettle.”
 Fix: “The traditional rule used by brewers of pale beer is that the bicarbonate concentration be below 25ppm as CaCO3 (15ppm HCO3-) (Owades, 1985). There is a positive synergism between carbonates from brewing liquor and dark malts. The latter contain complex Maillard products (including melanoidins) some of which contribute a rather harsh and biting acidity. The carbonates tend to moderate this characteristic by giving a mellow and “fine malt” palate. Hop constituents tend to have the reverse effect. It is easy to demonstrate that highly hopped beers made with highly alkaline water have a biting and crude bitterness.”

Summary: Bicarbonate is very much the “bad guy” in most brewing situations. Bicarbonate has a host of deleterious effects on brewing processes and beer flavour.  Bicarbonate is a strong alkaline buffer which resists the brewer’s efforts to acidify the mash. Its only role in brewing is in dark beers, to counteract the high acidity of dark malts. Most brewing water treatment activity worldwide is aimed at removing bicarbonate, but fortunately Melbourne water meets the 15ppm criterion.

3.  Importance of Mash pH.

Fix: “…..mash pH has been known for a long time to be very important (De Clerk, 1957). The classic rule is for the chilled wort to have a pH of 5.0 - 5.2 and, to achieve this level, it is desirable to establish a mash pH in the range 5.2 - 5.4 (Hind, 1950). This range, first of all, is favourable to enzymatic activity…..the enzymes’ activities do not decrease by much if the pH levels are more acid, but there is typically a sharp decrease if the pH becomes more basic (alkaline)” :

                                                    Amylase Activity at 60oC

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          
“Another equally important factor is that high pH mashes, say above 5.5, tend to lead to dull malt flavour that lacks definition (Narziss, 1992). Hop flavours are also negatively affected………in modern practice, the focus has turned to the pH (rather than the specific gravity) of the wort collected from the sparge  because pH increases with the extraction of undesirable astringents. A general rule is to terminate the sparge when the pH of the collected wort increases much beyond 0.1 pH units higher than the mash pH. In any case, it should not exceed 5.5.”

Noonan:  “…..pH is of utmost importance to the brewer. Appropriate acidity is a prerequisite of a successful brewing cycle. Enzyme activity, kettle break, and yeast performance rely on conducive acidity in the mash, wort, and beer”.

Summary: The ideal pH for all mashes is in the range 5.2 – 5.4.  Too low is better than too high, for reasons of enzyme efficiency and possible extraction of astringents during end sparging. The mash pH affects the pH throughout the remainder of the brewing cycle, including that of the finished beer.

3.1 Effects of calcium and bicarbonate on mash pH.

As mentioned above, calcium reduces pH while bicarbonate increases pH. These effects are quantified in Kolbach’s equation, which predicts the pH of a 100% pale malt mash. It is not necessarily a useful brewing tool, but it does illustrate some of the key principles underlying mash pH :

mash pH = 5.8 + 0.028 x [ (ppm HCO32- x 0.034) – (ppm Ca2+ x 0.04) – (ppm Mg2+ x 0.033) ]

- Note that calcium reduces mash pH (minus sign) while bicarbonate increases mash pH.

- Note also that magnesium has a similar effect to calcium, but in practice magnesium concentrations are so low that this effect is usually ignored. 

- Most importantly, note that if all these ionic concentrations are close to zero, as in Melbourne water, the mash pH remains 5.8. This is way too high. The addition of  90ppm of calcium will only reduce the pH to 5.7  -  still too high. This explains why very pale beers require further mash acidulation.

3.2  Effect of malt colour on mash pH.

The third factor in determining mash pH is malt colour – dark malts reduce pH significantly. This is due to acidic compounds, including melanoidins, formed at their higher kilning temperatures. The following figures from Noonan show that the darker the malt, the lower the mash pH :

                                 Pale malt:                pH 5.7 – 6.0
                                 Vienna / Munich:    pH 5.5 – 5.7
                                 Crystal:                    pH 4.5 – 4.8
                                 Chocolate:               pH 4.3 – 4.5
                                 Black:                      pH 4.0 – 4.2
 
Depending on their proportion in the grist, coloured malts may be sufficient to give proper mash acidity. Very dark grists may even be too acidic.

3.3  Achieving correct mash pH in practice.

The three factors determining mash pH can be represented thus:

										Ca2+
								Dark Malts
Mash pH	4.0	4.2	4.4	4.6	4.8	5.0	5.2	5.4	5.6	5.8	6.0
						HCO3-

Having first corrected any calcium deficiency in the brewing liquor, the task of brewers is then to balance the bicarbonate content with the malt colour of the mash in order to achieve optimum pH.
Beer colour is a reasonable predictor of mash pH. In practice, it turns out that bicarbonate is only demanded in extremely dark beers, eg. porters and stouts, to counteract the high acidic content of the large quantities of roast malts used in these styles. Very dark brown beers, eg. dunkels, dark Trappist ales, may also benefit from some bicarbonate. Experience shows that copper to brown beers generally hit the target range without  further treatment, and amber beers will be thereabouts or a touch high. Pale beers however will be significantly high, and further efforts are required to increase acidity. Pale lagers are generally the palest of beers and therefore present the greatest challenge, and several methods are commonly used to acidify the mash:

- acid rest during mashing cycle
- direct addition of acid (eg.lactic or phosphoric) to brewing liquor to pH 5.5 or even less;
- conducting a sourmash
- addition of some acidulated malt to the mash (eg. 1 – 10% of the grist).

4.  Ions of secondary importance in brewing.

This section deals with chloride and sulphate. These ions are introduced into the beer when calcium deficiency is corrected by the addition of calcium chloride or calcium sulphate (gypsum). The choice of which to use is determined by the flavour attributes desired in the beer.

4.1  Sulphate   SO42-

Noonan: “Gives beer a dry, fuller flavour, although the taste can be exceptionally sharp. With sodium and magnesium, it is cathartic (purgative). Above 500ppm it is strongly bitter, and levels are generally kept at less than 150ppm unless the beer is very highly hopped. With intensely bitter beers, sulphate at 150-350ppm gives a cleaner, more piquant bitterness. Increasing amounts of sulphate give a cleaner hop flavour. Well hopped beers brewed with gypsiferous liquor commonly exhibit a finer, less coarse bitterness than is obtained with other liquor profiles.”

Fix: “High sulphate levels and dark beers are not a particularly good marriage. The effects are a drying and astringent afterfinish.”

Summary:  Appropriate in pale, hoppy, bitter beers to give a cleaner hop flavour and bitterness, eg. IPA, Pale Ales, German Pilsener, or any pale beer where a drier crisper finish is being sought, perhaps a Dortmunder or a Tripel.  Sulphate would be inappropriate in a Bohemian Pilsener where a soft rounded bitterness is desirable. Sulphate is to be avoided altogether in dark beers.

4.2   Chloride   Cl-

Noonan: “Accentuates bitterness, but also increases mellowness, improves clarity. The “salt” taste of chloride generally enhances beer flavour and palate fullness, but the salt flavour is reduced by the presence of calcium. Usually found at levels of 1-100ppm, but levels may be as high as 250 ppm for British mild ales.”

Summary: Chloride is beneficial, or at least benign, in all beers, even at quite high levels. Unlike sulphate, chloride doesn’t cause problems in dark beers. These attributes makes calcium chloride extremely versatile and the obvious first choice for getting calcium into the mash.
5.  Ions of lesser importance in brewing.

This relates to magnesium, present in magnesium sulphate MgSO4 (Epsom salts) and to sodium, present in sodium chloride NaCl (table salt). For beginners, these salts would appear to have little use in brewing. 

5.1  Magnesium   Mg2+

Fix: “Magnesium plays a role in mash acidification by a mechanism similar to calcium. However this effect is small and is usually ignored. The major role magnesium plays is in the fermentation where magnesium is an important co-factor in various yeast metabolic activities. Actually, malt supplies sufficient magnesium for this purpose, and in addition, at too high a concentration, magnesium ions will contribute a harsh bitterness (Krauss et al., 1983). As a consequence, magnesium salts are rarely used for treating water in modern brewing.”

Noonan: “In concentrations of 10-30 ppm, magnesium accentuates the beer’s flavour, but it imparts an astringent bitterness when present in excess. At levels higher than 125 ppm it is cathartic and diuretic.”

5.2   Sodium   Na+

Noonan: “The sour salty taste of sodium can accentuate beer’s flavour when it is found in reasonable concentrations, but it is harsh and unpleasant in excess. It is poisonous to yeast, and brewers generally avoid water that contains sodium in excess of 50 ppm, especially where softness is characteristic of the beer flavour.

6.  Practical Water Treatment in Melbourne.

6.1   Which salt to add?

The three objectives of water treatment have now been identified and prioritized:

     1.       rectify calcium deficiency
     2.       control pH by balancing bicarbonate levels with malt colour
     3.       confer specific flavour characteristics in some cases by addition of sulphate

In practice, these three objectives are achieved simultaneously by the addition of one of three salts depending on the style of beer:

calcium carbonate  CaCO3   - very dark beers only

calcium chloride     CaCl2    - all other beers

calcium sulphate    CaSO4    - pale beers only, especially if hoppy and bitter
                                                and a crisp dry character is required

For very pale beers consider further mash acidification by the methods mentioned at the end of Section 3.4

6.2 How much salt to add?

When calculating brewing salt additions, many brewers have relied on the standard published table, regurgitated in numerous brewing texts, which gives the supposed water profiles of various historically famous brewing cities. This table is noticeably absent from Fix (Principles of Brewing Science, 1999).

Instead, using words such as “dubious” and “misleading”, Fix devotes two pages to a critique of these published figures, warns brewers against their “indiscriminate use” and advises: “Instead of using historical examples as a guide, the best overall strategy is to first make sure the technical requirements of the mash are met, ie. a proper pH, and then to adjust the mineral content by using the finished beer’s flavour as the guide”.

Putting this advice into practice, a table such as the following might constitute a more rational approach:

                                      
For pale hoppy beers where a dry finish is required, substitute sulphate for chloride:

These figures represent a reasonable starting point. Ideally, mash pH should be verified using a pH meter, and adjustments made accordingly.

6.3   How to add salt?

A simple and accurate way to add brewing salts is to make up a concentrated stock solution of each salt, which can then be added to the brewing liquor at the appropriate dilution rate using a 100ml measuring cylinder (available from laboratory glassware outlets for about $15, these double as an excellent hydrometer flask when not in use). The stock solution can be stored indefinitely and dispensed from a plastic bottle. This saves having to calculate and weigh salts every time you brew. Write the ppm concentrations on the bottle to help you memorize them. Following are the formulae for stock solutions of the three salts required, and some suggestions for their use in various beer styles:

calcium chloride    CaCl2.2H2O    Composition by weight:     27.2% Ca2+      48.3% Cl-

Stock solution: Use a measuring jug to dissolve a 100g packet of CaCl2 in  about 400ml of cold water (this takes a few minutes) then top up with cold water to 540ml. A Powerade type drink bottle (approx 600ml) with re-sealable nozzle makes a convenient dispensing bottle.

Add to brewing liquor at 1:1000 dilution (eg. add 30ml to 30 litres,  50ml to 50 litres etc.)
This will give 50 ppm Ca2+ and 90 ppm Cl-, satisfying the minimum Ca2+ requirement for all beers. Try  doubling this rate for pale beers to help get the mash pH down. Addition of calcium chloride by this method is an ideal first step in tackling water treatment for all beers. Later on, you can consider adding calcium carbonate and calcium sulphate to your repertoire.

For these two salts, larger stock solutions are required due to their poor solubility, and the bottle will need to be shaken and dispensed quickly before the precipitate resettles.

calcium carbonate       CaCO3       Composition by weight:      40% Ca2+      60% CO32-

Stock solution: add 40g to water and top up to 2 litres.

Add to brewing liquor at 1:100 dilution. This will give 80 ppm Ca2+ and 120 ppm HCO3- , a good level for stouts and porters. Try a bit less for dunkels and other dark brown beers.

calcium sulphate    CaSO4.2H20   Composition by weight:  23.3% Ca2+     55.8% SO42-

Stock solution:  add 100g packet to water and top up to 2 litres, store in a milk or fruit juice bottle. 

Add to brewing liquor at 1: 100 dilution (eg. 300ml in 30 litres, 500ml in 50 litres etc.) This will give 115 ppm Ca2+ and 280 ppm SO42-, a good level for pale ales and German pilsner. Consider doubling this rate for a Burton IPA.

For brewers preferring to add these two salts dry:
calcium sulphate:   add 0.5 grams per litre of brewing water to give 115ppm Ca2+ and 280ppm SO42-
calcium carbonate: add 0.2 grams per litre of brewing water to give  80 ppm Ca2+ and 120ppm HCO3-

Conclusion.

The old notion that “soft” water such as Melbourne’s is suitable for brewing all styles of beer can no longer be accepted by serious brewers. The addition of calcium alone usually leads to increased extraction and improved clarity, especially in pale beers, while carbonate does lend a desirable softness to stouts and porters.  Whatever further potential benefits to beer flavour can be achieved by water treatment will remain unknown until brewers start to explore its frontiers.

There is more to brewing than water treatment, but it should at least be seen as a prerequisite for great beer. The following quote (Noonan, Scotch Ale, 1993) sums it up nicely: in reference to a competitor, “Mr. Thompson our brewer always spoke highly of their fine water and abundant supply, and he thought that if they only put in the malt they would be dangerous opponents.”

Starters & Oxygenation

There are several factors which influence yeast growth (and fermentation) and accordingly are of interest to the home brewer.  The most important are;

• Oxygen
• PH (acidity)
• Temperature
• and Wort Composition.

This note presents some information on the influence of oxygen principally with respect to yeast starters.
Oxygen is essential for good yeast growth and has a significant impact on yeast metabolism including fermentation. Oxygen directly correlates with rapid growth and increase in yeast mass.  So when it comes to starters, the greater the yeast mass introduced to the brew the better the fermentation.

The purpose of starters are to produce a large amount of yeast mass, not a mini beer in the starter jar. Criteria for starters are different to the criteria for fermenting wort.
Oxygen in the wort can be both beneficial and disastrous depending upon the stage of fermentation of the wort. Aeration is only important in the initial stages of fermentation (first 6-12 hours), aeration in the later stages can oxidize beer constituents that can lead to the development of off flavours.

So to maximise the yeast cells in your starter, it should be well aerated (oxygenated). There are of course a number of ways that this can be achieved. The following chart shows the results of four different methods

                       
Results are for same starter base each time. Using a stir plate to generate yeast for a starter may obviate many fermentation problems.

Food for thought!

Charles

Contamination

It was of interest that I read in the last News Sheet that people have experienced contaminated brews. We have in the past discussed the effect of Light Strike on beer, why it occurs and how to avoid it.  Similarly, it is fairly common knowledge that to prevent infection of beer, you basically sanitise the bejesus of everything in sight. Reasonably effective but hardly scientific!

Being a brewer who hates to waste the dollar cost of a batch of brew, it would also annoy the heck out of me to waste the effort and time put into formulating and producing the latest batch to have it taste like pond water, either through poor practice or by the invasion of some foreign microbe.

In discussion with others, and searching the internet I have found that there is a disciplined way that will provide the elimination of any contaminants and processes that will conspire to make your brew a cause for tears. Beings a “systems” person, it has great appeal for me and takes away the worry of a failed brew. I am left to concentrate on those aspects of brewing concerned with flavour, colour, etc.

Although the approach is scientific, all you require are a pencil and paper and a reasonable understanding of what you are doing.

The system itself is called the HACCP system. HACCP is an acronym for Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point. HACCP is a process control system designed to identify and prevent microbial and other hazards in food production.  It is part of the ISO 22000 international standard which specifies the requirements for a food safety management system.

I have incorporated the HACCP system into my brewing operations,-or a dialect of it anyway, as a matter of standard practice.  So a little theory first and then I shall describe my own efforts.  (Really, there is so much on the internet about this, just Google HACCP and stand back)

The HACCP seven principles.

1. Hazard Analysis – Identification of anything that is going to upset your brew if not under control. It can be biological, chemical or physical.

2. Determine the Critical Control Points. A CCP is any step at which hazards can be prevented, eliminated or reduced to an acceptable level.

3. Establish critical limits. A critical limit is the action value for a Critical Control Point. These ensure that a biological, chemical or physical hazard is eliminated. A critical limit is something that can be monitored by measurement or observation: eg, temperature of brew, physical appearance or contamination of bottles.

4.  Establish monitoring procedures. Monitoring is a plan which includes observations or measurements to assess whether the CCP is being met. Where the CCP is not being met then action must be taken to bring the process back into control.

5. Establish corrective actions.  If the criteria for a CCP are not being met, some type of corrective action must be taken. The action must meet the standards established in Step 3, must be based on facts for normal working operations and be measurable. Depending on the severity of corrective action, it may range from adjustment of temperature up or down of a fermenting wort, or God forbid, chucking the lot because of contamination.  In the case of the latter, I would certainly be going over my process to see where it is faulty – starting to get the idea!

6. Establish verification procedures. These procedures are activities, other than monitoring that determine the validity of the plan and that the system is operating according to plan.  An important aspect of the plan is that it is scientifically and technically sound. I just review my plan every so often. Better still, ask a fellow brewer to check out your plan.

7. Establish record keeping and documentation procedures. These should be simple to complete and include information that illustrates that the established standards are being met. As I am doing quite a few mini mashes now, I keep check lists of ingredients and boil times to help in the process. They are simple but effective and I am less confused than normal.

Where do I start?

Draw up a flow chart
Brewing is a simple process. A series of actions and events make up the process.
First thing to be done is to draw up a simple flow chart. This is where the pencil and paper comes in. All you need to do is list all the steps in sequence that you use to produce your best brew.  This is a good exercise in itself as it assists in clarifying the process that you are using and can reveal ways of improving it

The flowchart can be as detailed as you want or kept simple. I like to keep is relatively simple with only the really essential items shown. It might take a couple of revisions before you are happy with it but that’s OK, as each revision will improve your understanding of the overall brewing process. The aim is to achieve a standard process of operating. This will achieve 100% repeatable results each time.

When you are happy with the flow chart, work your way through it to identify where hazards might be introduced into the process. These will leap out at you and be readily identifiable. At this point you may even wish to change your brewing practices as the flow chart exercise may have already pointed out a few inconsistencies in your methods.

I have included my own flow chart as an example. This is not rocket science folks. Boxes 1 through to 5 represent major subsystems and the key sequential actions for that subsystem are listed under each box.  If I wanted, I could take the sequential items listed under any of the boxes to create another flowchart for that subsystem and add further detailed statements for each of those boxes. Get the picture? But let’s keep it simple.
Subsystem 2 would vary dependant on what you are brewing and it can be worth while paying a little more attention to the required steps in this subsystem. Here I am trying to provide you with the basic idea.

Now that you have your flow chart drawn up and are confident that it represents your practices, identify any hazards that could cause you problems in the brewing process. The major determinant of identifying hazards will be your own experience and common sense, - a dangerous mix!

For example – process statement 2:1 Inspect and sanitise equipment. You should have a standard way of doing this. Have a think, do you sanitise your bench area, the tin opener that you last opened the dog food with, all the utensils that you are to use, fermenter etc.
Is your sanitiser the correct sanitiser for the job, at the correct strength? Have you rinsed the sanitiser away with pure water?  Did you wash your hands? Are you carrying out your brewing operation in a dust free area? Bacteria travel on dust particles, not by crawling around or by flying. Bacteria do not have legs or wings.

Another example: Process statement 2:7 - SG readings. This refers to the use of SG readings to determine that the fermentation process in the fermenter is complete and that bottling can take place. Without going through this process, you can end up with a real fizzy brew. Although the beer is drinkable, it would be a better product if you did not have to deal with Mt. Vesuvius each time you knocked the top of a bottle.

So check each step through your process to identify and mark or list possible hazards.

Determine possible hazards
It is now time to evaluate these possible hazards and determine if they are of sufficient significance to become a critical control point. There may be some hazards that you have identified which may be reduced or eliminated by introducing a simple practice.  Here are two that come to mind that have been subject of discussion on previous occasions.
One, - the reduction of oxygen in the headspace of your bottled beer. There are two possible solutions here. One is to charge each of the bottles to be filled with CO2. If you are using kegs as well then you will have the gas bottle available. The other solution is fill all the bottles with the brew, and then cap the first bottle filled first and so on until the last bottle filled is capped last. This allows time for any CO2 given off during filling to force the air (containing oxygen) from the headspace of the bottle. Capping the bottles sequentially in the order as described allows the greatest opportunity for this to occur.

Two,-the issue of light strike. Preferably use brown coloured glass bottles and store in a suitable cupboard that is lightproof.
So here two identified hazards have been eliminated from the process by a change of practices.

Assign Critical Control Points
There will be some hazards that will need to be assigned a Critical Control Point because until measurements are taken, reasonable actions cannot be determined. For example; Item 2:5 - The temperature of the wort is crucial when pitching the yeast.
Similarly the fermentation program is a Critical Control Point in the process. Too low or to high a temperature during the fermentation stage can lead to poor results.

Determine the limits for each critical control point listed
This may be in terms of temperature or time or a visual inspection.
Examples are; Temperature range of yeast fermentation, length of boil of ingredients in the brew kettle, visual inspection of bottles.

Establish procedures to monitor CCP’s
Here you have to make a decision. I have a few procedures in place to help me where I think it is necessary. Eg, I record SG readings daily at the end of fermentation to determine when to bottle. Automatically I then also have my final SG reading in my records for that brew.
When doing a mini mash brew with a number of ingredients I draw up a boil chart that allows me to tick of each ingredient as it goes into the brew pot. That ensures I never have any mistakes on what goes in when and for how long.

Determine the actions that would be required when critical control points are not met.
No need to be formal on this aspect. Any actions as a result of monitoring the process will be self evident. The ultimate aim is to make your brewing process bullet proof so that no corrective actions are required.

Document process and bring your practices in line with your plan.
When you have drawn up your plan, use it for the next brew, use any simple check lists that you have devised. Some you may wish to incorporate into your records.
If your plan is sound and you stick to it you should have eliminated major catastrophes.
Get a fellow brewer to check and discuss your plan and revise and update as necessary

Verification that your plan works
Well, you don’t need to call in the auditors, the proof of the pudding is in the eating. Try a beer after it been conditioned. Your taste buds will tell you what you want to know.  If you have trouble, diagnose the problem. If your plan is sound start looking in the mirror.

As a footnote to all the above, having a HACPP plan is merely a way of ensuring that your thinking is well structured and that you are not omitting any crucial aspect that might prevent you brewing a great beer. Of course, you still need to start with a good recipe and ingredients to have all bases covered.

I encourage you to get out your pencil and paper, knock the top of one of your better brews for inspiration and have a go.

Happy Brewing
Charles

Amber Ale Descriptor

I have done a little research and the following detail would be accorded to a typical Amber Ale.

Appearance:  Amber to deep Copper. Good to brilliant clarity. White to off white head. Colour would be derived from a pale malt base with crystal malt providing the identifying colour.

Aroma: Some malt aroma with a hop aroma ranging from moderate to little.

Flavour: Medium to high bitterness, moderate hop flavour with a good balance between the malt and hops without nullifying the bitterness. Reasonably dry and nutty finish.

Mouthfeel: Medium light body with low to moderate carbonation.

Overall impression: Drinkability is a critical component to this beer, emphasis of the hop bitterness with a nicely balanced middle palate finishing with a dry nutty flavour would be typical of this amber ale

Vital statistics
OG        1046 – 1054                                                       FG 1010 – 1015

ABV 4.5% - 5.2%

Typical examples – James Squires Amber Ale, Cascade Amber Ale.

Hope the above provides some general guidance

Cheers

Charles

Scottish Ale

Scottish Ale is a product of its location. Because Scotland has a colder climate, her brewers never had access to the hop fields that were available to their British counterparts. Subsequently Scottish beers have never been as bitter as the British equivalents. Additionally, fermentation has traditionally been cool and long. Thus the typical Scottish beer has a strong malty palate, fermented out to a clean finish without a noticeable hoppiness. The colour ranges from deep amber to dark copper with good clarity.
Scottish beers are divided into 3 subcategories differentiated mainly on alcoholic strength. (Scottish Light, Scottish Heavy, Scottish Export) The stronger versions display slightly more intense flavours with an increase in the hop loading to balance the increased malt.

Scottish Light
Vital Statistics
OG:                  1030 – 1035
IBU’s               10 – 20
FG:                   1010 – 1013
SRM:                9 - 17
ABV:               2.5 – 3.2%

Scottish Heavy
Vital Statistics
OG:                  1035 – 1040
IBU’s               10 – 25
FG:                   1010 – 1015
SRM:                9 - 17
ABV:               3.2 – 3.9%

Scottish Export
Vital Statistics
OG:                  1040 – 1054
IBU’s               15 – 30
FG:                   1010 – 1016
SRM:                9 - 17
ABV:               3.9 – 5.0%

Aroma
Low to medium malty sweetness, sometimes accentuated by kettle caramelisation.
Appearance.
Deep amber to dark copper. Usually very clear, low to moderate off white to light tan coloured head
Flavour
Malt is the primary flavour but isn’t overly strong. May have a slight caramel flavour. Hop bitterness is low to moderate with the balance being towards the malt. Hop flavour is low to none. Generally has a dry grainy finish due to small amounts of roasted barley.
Mouthfeel
Medium-low to medium body. Low to moderate carbonation. Some times a bit creamy, but often quite dry due to use of roasted barley.
Overall Impression
Cleanly malty with a drying finish, perhaps a few esters.
Ingredients
Scottish or English pale base malt. Small amounts of roasted malt add colour and flavour and provide a dry, slightly roasted finish. English hops. Use of a clean low attenuation ale yeast. Small amounts of crystal, amber or wheat malts are sometimes used as is the addition of adjuncts such as sugar.